生物胺是一类含有氨基碱性有机化合物的总称,一般由氨基酸通过脱羧反应生成,普遍存在于各种发酵食品中[1-2],过量摄入会引起腹泻、呕吐等症状[3-4]。研究表明生物胺与乙醇有协同作用,会加剧饮酒后带来的不利影响,尤其是生物胺中的组胺和苯乙胺[5]。因此,减少酒中生物胺含量对于提高成品酒品质具有重要意义[6]。一些国家已制定了葡萄酒中组胺的限定标准,其中最严格的是德国规定的不得超过2 mg/L[7],目前我国还未制定黄酒和白酒生物胺限量标准。本文总结了不同类型的黄酒和白酒中生物胺含量水平、酿酒过程中生物胺的动态生成规律,以及影响黄酒和白酒生物胺形成的因素,以期为黄酒和白酒生物胺的控制提供参考。
1 黄酒和白酒中的生物胺含量水平
黄酒和白酒是以酒曲作为糖化发酵剂、以粮谷类为原料酿制的典型中国酒。部分黄酒和白酒样品中生物胺种类和含量见表1。黄酒的生物胺含量为2.56～260 mg/L,以腐胺、酪胺、尸胺和组胺为主;白酒的生物胺含量为0.220 1～13.027 mg/L。有关白酒中生物胺的研究较少,总体上黄酒中的生物胺含量高于白酒,也高于同属发酵酒的啤酒和葡萄酒(生物胺含量分别为2.37～11.568 mg/L和3.55～44.00 mg/L)[8-9]。目前我国尚无酒类生物胺限量的明确规定。有研究认为,发酵食品中总生物胺含量应低于200 mg/kg,酒精饮料中组胺含量上限为2 mg/L,酪胺含量上限为10 mg/L[10-13]。从本文收集到的研究结果来看,仅有少部分黄酒样品生物胺超过上述限量。从表1看,不同类型样品生物胺种类和含量有较大差异,例如甜型黄酒生物胺含量低于半干型和半甜型。此外,同一类型的酒中,生物胺种类和含量也有较大的差异。但目前关于不同类型酒中生物胺含量的研究较少,本文收集到的数据有限,且生物胺含量受多种因素影响,并不能准确说明造成上述差异的具体原因。
表1 不同类型黄酒和白酒中生物胺含量
Table 1 Comparison of biogenic amine contents in different types of Huangjiu and Baijiu
分类类型/发酵剂生物胺种类总生物胺质量浓度/(mg/L)黄酒半干型/麦曲酪胺、组胺、尸胺、腐胺、5-羟色胺酪胺、组胺、尸胺、腐胺、2-苯乙胺、色胺、精胺、亚精胺29.3～197[14]78.5[15]半甜型/麦曲酪胺、组胺、尸胺、腐胺、5-羟色胺78.7～260[14]甜型/麦曲组胺、1,6-己二胺3.47～4.11[16]市售未知类型/未知酪胺、组胺、尸胺、腐胺、2-苯乙胺、色胺、精胺、亚精胺20.8～76.8[17]151.02～181.48[18]2.56～37.29[19]白酒清香型/未知酪胺、组胺、尸胺、腐胺、盐酸吡哆胺、2-苯乙胺、色胺、精胺、亚精胺3.83～7.94[20]酱香型/大曲色胺、酪胺甲胺、乙胺、吡咯烷、腐胺、尸胺8.716～13.027[21]0.220 1～0.395[22]兼香型/大曲甲胺、乙胺、吡咯烷、腐胺2-苯乙胺、腐胺1.897[23]0.113[24]浓香型/大曲2-苯乙胺、腐胺、亚精胺0.403[24]米香型/小曲(本研究室)色胺、苯乙胺、腐胺、尸胺、组胺、酪胺、亚精胺、精胺14.34～33.80
2 黄酒和白酒酿造中生物胺积累的动态规律
传统的黄酒制作工艺主要包括浸米、蒸饭、拌曲落缸、发酵和压榨澄清。研究显示浸米过程中会积累较多的生物胺,并且浸米时间越长,发酵醪中生物胺含量越高[25]。采用免浸米工艺发酵得到的黄酒生物胺含量较对照组下降了71.95%[26]。黄酒中大部分生物胺的形成是在发酵前期和中期[9,27]。ZHANG等[28]的研究显示,绍兴地区黄酒发酵过程中前6 d生物胺含量从最初的54.52 mg/L增加到146.35 mg/L,后期缓慢减少到104.18 mg/L;腐胺在发酵前期迅速上升,在发酵中期下降幅度较大,在发酵后期又有回升的趋势,其余7种生物胺(组胺、尸胺、酪胺、苯乙胺、精胺、亚精胺、色胺)呈现先上升后缓慢下降的趋势。许禄[29]对黄酒发酵过程的研究显示发酵前期(发酵前13 d)形成的生物胺含量占成品中生物胺总量的76%,其中酪胺、组胺、腐胺在前酵期明显增加,苯乙胺和尸胺含量变化不明显。
关于白酒酿造过程中生物胺形成的动态规律研究报道很少。范文来等[22]研究发现兼香型白酒发酵过程中酒醅的生物胺总量逐渐升高,发酵第20天酒醅生物胺总量上升至16 mg/kg,到第60天生物胺总量下降至11.78 mg/kg;甲胺、乙胺、吡咯烷和腐胺含量在第10天到第20天迅速增加,第20天～第30天略有下降;尸胺含量在发酵过程中一直处于上升状态,含量最高时达到3.44 mg/kg。本实验室对米香型小曲白酒发酵过程的研究显示生物胺积累主要在发酵前期和中期,苯乙胺、腐胺和亚精胺呈现先上升后下降的趋势;组胺、尸胺和精胺波动幅度不大;酪胺呈现逐渐下降的趋势。总的来说,白酒发酵过程中生物胺形成趋势与黄酒相似。由于生物胺普遍具有较高的沸点(如腐胺158 ℃、尸胺178 ℃),因此蒸酒后生物胺含量降低。范文来等[22]的研究显示兼香型白酒蒸酒环节酒醅中的生物胺有27.71%流向酒体中,本研究室酿造的米香型小曲白酒经蒸馏后有42.6%的生物胺流向酒体中。
3 黄酒和白酒酿造中生物胺形成的影响因素
发酵食品中生物胺形成的一般机制是:游离氨基酸通过转运蛋白运送至微生物细胞内,在氨基酸脱羧酶的作用下脱羧形成相应的生物胺,生物胺再通过转运蛋白运送到微生物细胞外[30-31]。影响酿酒中生物胺形成的因素主要有以下几个方面。
3.1 氨基酸前体
酿酒中的氨基酸主要来源于原料蛋白质的水解[32]。高粱和糯米分别是白酒和黄酒酿造的常用原料。高粱中蛋白质含量为7.84%～9.09%,糯米中蛋白质占比为8.10%～10.30%,高粱和糯米的氨基酸组成及含量也较为相似[33-36]。黄酒发酵过程中,生物胺前体氨基酸(甲硫氨酸、精氨酸、色氨酸、苯丙氨酸、赖氨酸、组氨酸和酪氨酸)总量呈上升趋势,大约为400～1 300 mg/L[37-40]。白酒的氨基酸含量较黄酒更低[41],任宇婷等[42]的研究结果显示清香型白酒发酵过程(0～28 d)酒醅中生物胺前体氨基酸(甲硫氨酸、精氨酸、苯丙氨酸、赖氨酸、组氨酸和酪氨酸)含量从13.2 mg/kg上升到121.2 mg/kg。一些研究表明游离氨基酸与生物胺含量之间有很强的正相关性[43-45],这可能是黄酒生物胺含量较高的原因之一[46-47]。但前体氨基酸与生物胺的关系复杂,并不一定是简单的线性关系[48-49]。
氨基酸是合成生物胺的前体物质,可考虑降低发酵体系中氨基酸浓度来限制生物胺的积累。有研究通过将黄酒生产中酿酒酵母的PEP4基因(编码一种蛋白水解酶)敲除,降低了黄酒中游离氨基酸浓度,使得生物胺含量下降了25.5%[50]。但这一方式对黄酒香气成分及营养价值的影响还有待进一步的研究。
3.2 产生物胺微生物
酿酒过程中微生物种类很多,已报道的部分与酿酒中生物胺形成有关的微生物见表2。Lactobacillus、Leuconostoc等乳酸菌在多数研究中被认为是黄酒中产生物胺的主要微生物。这与目前对于酿酒中生物胺主要来自乳酸菌的观点一致[51-52]。但酿酒中的一些非乳酸菌和真菌也具有产生物胺的能力,如牛天娇[53]基于相关性分析认为Saccharomyces和Rhizopus等真菌对黄酒中生物胺的生成有较大贡献;Staphylococcus、Citrobacter、Cronobacter和Saccharomyces cerevisiae经实验验证具有产生物胺的能力[54-55]。关于白酒酿造中产胺微生物的研究较少。本研究室对米香型白酒生物胺和微生物的相关性分析结果提示Aspergillus、Trichoderma与色胺、苯乙胺、腐胺、酪胺亚精胺的生成相关,Enterobacter与苯乙胺、腐胺、尸胺、亚精胺的生成有关。Saccharomyces、Enterobacter、Lactobacillus和Staphylococcus是酿酒过程中常见的兼性厌氧微生物,在整个发酵过程都较为活跃;Rhizopus、Aspergillus和Trichoderma为酿酒过程中常见的好氧真菌,一般在发酵前期较为活跃。生物胺的生成多集中在发酵前期和中期,因此上述几种微生物在生物胺合成上可能都有贡献。除微生物种类会影响生物胺合成外,微生物数量对生物胺合成也有较大影响。黄酒发酵前期和中期的细菌数量较多,在发酵后期由于酒精度、酸度等因素的影响,细菌数量呈现大幅减少的趋势[56]。
表2 酿酒过程中与生物胺形成相关的微生物
Table 2 Microorganisms associated with biogenic amines formation during winemaking
菌种相关生物胺种类来源Lactobacillus亚精胺、尸胺、腐胺、酪胺、精胺Leuconostoc腐胺、尸胺、组胺Sphingomonas腐胺、尸胺Acinetobacter腐胺、尸胺Empedobacter腐胺、尸胺Weissella酪胺Lactococcus尸胺、精胺相关性分析[53,59-60]Pediococcus组胺、亚精胺、尸胺、腐胺Saccharopolyspora组胺、尸胺、精胺Saccharomyces组胺、酪胺、色胺Rhizopus精胺、腐胺Aspergillus精胺Millerozyma亚精胺、尸胺、腐胺Apiotrichum精胺Lactobacillus coryniformis腐胺、组胺、酪胺从黄酒发酵液中筛选[61]Lactobacillus brevisEnterobacter cloacae腐胺、尸胺、组胺Lactobacillus plantarum苯乙胺、酪胺Klebsiella pneumoniae苯乙胺、腐胺、尸胺Enterococcus durans苯乙胺、酪胺从黄酒曲中筛选[55,62]Escherichia coli腐胺、尸胺、组胺Citrobacter amalonaticus腐胺、尸胺、组胺Staphylococcus haemolyticus腐胺、尸胺、组胺Enterobacter hormaechei腐胺、组胺
从微生物角度考虑,可通过筛选酿酒过程中低产或不产生物胺的菌株从而降低成品酒生物胺含量。有研究从黄酒发酵醪中筛选出不产或低产生物胺的植物乳杆菌,将其应用到黄酒浸米或发酵工艺中,最终成品黄酒生物胺含量明显降低,并且对成品酒风味影响不大[53,57-58]。目前这类研究多集中在乳酸菌方面,关于其他非乳酸菌微生物的影响研究报道较少。由于中国黄酒和白酒生产基于混菌发酵体系,对于微生物组成的精准控制有较大困难。
3.3 氨基酸脱羧酶
氨基酸脱羧酶是催化前体氨基酸形成生物胺的关键酶。基于表2信息结合uniprot、NCBI数据库检索,对酿酒过程中与生物胺形成相关的微生物中四类氨基酸脱羧酶(鸟氨酸脱羧酶、组氨酸脱羧酶、酪氨酸脱羧酶、赖氨酸脱羧酶)进行了系统进化树分析(图1)。收集到的赖氨酸脱羧酶序列均来自细菌,部分乳酸菌脱羧酶序列相似度达到90%以上,其余的序列差异较大;酪氨酸脱羧酶序列相似度较低,大多在50%左右;收集到了相对较多的真菌鸟氨酸脱羧酶序列,例如Saccharomyces cerevisiae、Rhizopus microsporus等,只有Lactobacillus helveticus、Lactobacillus johnsonii、Leuconostoc oenos、Staphylococcus epidermidis等的序列相似度在70%以上,其余真菌和细菌相似度均低于50%;收集到的组氨酸脱羧酶序列都来自细菌,相似度均大于50%。
A-赖氨酸脱羧酶;B-酪氨酸脱羧酶;C-鸟氨酸脱羧酶;D-组氨酸脱羧酶
图1 酿酒过程中微生物氨基酸脱羧酶氨基酸序列的系统进化树分析
Fig.1 Phylogenetic tree analysis of amino acid sequences of common microbial amino acid decarboxylase during winemaking
选取酿酒过程中代表性微生物(酵母菌、霉菌、乳酸菌等)的氨基酸脱羧酶序列进行理化特性预测,结果如表3所示,结果显示大部分氨基酸脱羧酶的等电点在4.63～6.08。白酒和黄酒发酵过程的pH值一般在4.5以下,不会对酶活性造成直接影响。大部分脱羧酶不稳定指数<40,提示有较好的稳定性,这与离体氨基酸脱羧酶仍具有产生物胺能力的报道吻合[63]。亚细胞定位预测结果表明大部分脱羧酶蛋白位于细胞质,推断多数氨基酸脱羧酶为胞内酶,目前已有研究证明部分氨基酸脱羧酶为胞内酶[64-65]。但少数微生物Lactobacillus sp.和Leuconostoc oenos的组氨酸脱羧酶定位预测显示其位于胞外,有待进一步实验验证。
表3 氨基酸脱羧酶理化性质预测
Table 3 Prediction of physicochemical properties of amino acid decarboxylase
氨基酸脱羧酶种类菌种氨基酸序列长度理论等电点不稳定指数亚细胞定位酪氨酸脱羧酶Lactobacillus brevis 6265.4933.24细胞质Staphylococcus6165.0237.73细胞质Aspergillus parasiticus 10665.4939.31细胞质Clostridium scatologenes 8975.4334.37细胞质Bacillus 6275.1534.84细胞质赖氨酸脱羧酶Enterobacter hormaechei 7105.3142.33细胞质Pantoea4615.9946.49细胞质Klebsiella michiganensis7155.7741.98细胞质鸟氨酸脱羧酶Saccharomyces cerevisiae4665.3329.41细胞质Lactobacillus helveticus7016.0834.56细胞质Acinetobacter sp.9296.0050.28细胞质Brettanomyces custersii 4678.8542.81线粒体Rhizopus microsporus4304.9941.95线粒体Leuconostoc oenos7455.4635.86细胞质组氨酸脱羧酶Lactobacillus sp.3114.6340.39胞外 Citrobacter pasteurii 3785.2331.14细胞质Weissella diestrammenae4416.0135.96细胞质
从氨基酸脱羧酶的角度考虑,降低黄酒和白酒中生物胺含量可采用2种方式,一是下调氨基酸脱羧酶基因的表达,如薛林林等[66]的研究显示,阿魏酸能显著抑制粪肠球菌和屎肠球菌酪氨酸脱羧酶基因的表达从而降低体系中酪胺产量;二是通过外源物小分子优先占据氨基酸脱羧酶活性位点,使得氨基酸无法与相应的脱羧酶结合。如LIN等[67]的分子对接预测结果显示胡椒、辣椒和生姜中的部分小分子与氨基酸脱羧酶的活性中心有较强的结合能力,经实验验证香辛料对离体氨基酸脱羧酶的抑制率达到16%。
3.4 发酵操作参数及其他
研究显示,温度会显著影响发酵食品中的生物胺生成水平[68]。较高的温度使部分产胺微生物生长代谢活跃从而导致生物胺含量的增加[69-72]。杨晓满等[73]探究不同发酵温度(18 ℃～24 ℃)对蜂蜜酒生物胺形成的影响,结果显示24 ℃组总生物胺含量最高,其中酪胺含量是18 ℃组的2倍。但MAIJALA[74]研究温度及不同发酵剂对香肠中生物胺含量的影响,表明温度与生物胺合成的关系并不只是简单的正相关关系,还与发酵剂中微生物的种类有关。
大部分黄酒和白酒发酵过程中的pH值低于4.5[75-76],大多数细菌的最适pH值为6.5～7.5,酵母、霉菌的最适pH值为5.0～6.0[77]。许多研究表明氨基酸经过脱羧作用形成生物胺是微生物应对酸性环境的一种机制[51,78]。但并非pH值越低生物胺含量越高。如LANDETE等[79]研究3个地区葡萄酒(pH值为3.1～3.9)生物胺的差异显示,pH值较高者其组胺含量也更高。食品发酵是一个复杂的体系,pH值除影响酒中多种微生物的生长之外,还会影响酶分子构象的稳定性及酶活中心的结构[80-81]。
在食品发酵过程中添加某些外源物可减少生物胺积累。目前报道的外源物主要包括两类,一类是有机酸,其作用机制主要是抑制发酵体系中菌落总数和乳酸菌数,如肖付才等[82]添加柠檬酸、苹果酸和乳酸发酵使泡菜中生物胺总量分别降低了40.46%、36.13%和37.29%;另一类是植源性天然产物,其作用机制可能是其中的某些小分子优先占据氨基酸脱羧酶活性位点或抑制氨基酸脱羧酶基因的表达,如BOZKURT[83]添加绿茶提取物发酵香肠使酪胺、组胺和腐胺分别降低了26%、37%和40%。本研究室在黄酒发酵过程中添加黄芪、枸杞和桔梗提取液,组胺含量降低了14.89%～24.96%。
4 结语
本文综述了不同类型黄酒和白酒中的生物胺含量、生物胺在酿酒过程中生成规律和影响因素。黄酒和白酒发酵过程中大部分生物胺的生成都集中在发酵前期和中期,总体上看黄酒的生物胺水平高于白酒,小部分黄酒样品生物胺超过了某些研究认为的安全限量值。影响生物胺生成的因素主要有前体氨基酸含量、微生物种类差异、氨基酸脱羧酶活性、发酵工艺及发酵条件等,可考虑从这几个方面着手来控制黄酒和白酒中生物胺水平。
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